For the individual on the street physical characteristics of fellow human illumine manifold aspects of personality. It is well known that fat men are jolly and indolent, that lean individuals are shy and morose. Early investigators such as Lavater (1804) compiled a large directory of such diagnostic statements. Other students of human behaviour have advanced similar finding and have frequently attempted to introduce empirical control into the demonstrations of such relations. Thus, lay person and many scholars of the past share the belief that behaviour is related in important respects to observable aspects of the individual's physical make up. Though it is commonly accepted that physical characteristics are linked losely to genetic factors, the suggestion that physical and psychological characteristics are intimately related seems to imply a championing of genetic determinism. Such a conception has been unable to muster much support in the face of the buoyant environmentalist of American psychology. In the face of this indifference or hostility to the possibility of important association between structural and behavioural characteristics, the work of Sheldon stands as a unique contribution on the contemporary scene.
The term constitution refers to those aspects of the individual which are relatively more fixed and unchanging-morphology, physiology, endocrine functions-and may be contrasted with these aspects which are relatively more susceptible to modification by environmental pressure, i.e. habits, social attitudes, education ets thus, constitutional psychology then is the study of psychological aspects of human behaviour as they are related to the morphology and physiology of the body, and the terms is ordinarily used to refer to those theorists or investigators who have emphasized the relation between structural aspects of the body (physique) and behaviour.
The individual who is generally credited with having begun work in this area is Hippocrates who suggested not only typology of physique but also a temperament typology and a conception of humors. He suggested a two-fold classification of physiques dividing the subjects into those who were short and thick, and those who are long and thin. The next major studies, of the relation between physique and mental disorders was done by Ernst Kretschmer (1921). He arrived at a conception of three fundamental types of physiques: Aesthnic, refers to a frail, linear physique; athletic refers to a muscular, vigorous physique and pyknic, is characterized by plumpness. Later he came up with a fourth type, the dysplatic, which is strikingly deviant from others, rare, surprising and ugly. This work of Ernst Kretschmer & others provide an indispensable backdrop against which Sheldon's formulations and procedures evolved.
Primary component of physique: the three dimensions became the core of the technique for assessing the physical structure of the body. The first component was Endomorphy; the individual who is high in this component is characterized by softness and a spherical appearance. Consistent with the softness and rounded quality is an under development of bone and muscle and a relatively low surface-mass ratio. The fact that the digestive visera are highly developed in this physique and the fundamental elements of these structures develop primarily form the endeavoural embroyonic layer accounts for the use of the terms endomorphy.
The second component is referred to as Mesomorphy. A physique highly developed in this component is hard and rectangular, with a predominance of bone and muscle. The mesomorphic body is tough, resistant to injury and generally equipped for strenuous and exacting physical demands. The dominant portions of this physique have derived primarily from the mesodermal embryonic layer, hence the term mesomorphic.
The third component is Ectomorphy. An individual who is at the upper extreme of this component is linear and fragile, characterized by flatness of the chest and delicacy of the body. He is usually thin and lightly muscled. Relative to his mass the ectomorphic has more surface are than the other types of physique. He has the largest brain and central nervous system in proportion to his size. His physique is made up of tissues that have derived from ectodermal embryonic layer. The ectomorph is more exposed to external stimuli because of his large surface area. This is a physique poorly equipped for competitive and persistent physical action.
Female somatotyping: Sheldon states that the evidence available indicates that the same somatotypes seemed to occur among women as had been observed among men, although probably with different frequencies. Endomorphy and endomorphy combined with ectomorphy are more common among women; while mesomorphy and mormorphy combined with endormorphy are more common among men. Female physiques are much more endomorphic than male physiques.
The secondary components: the primary components serve to set limits upon a classified physique within any single somatotype classification there is still room for tremendous variation. This variation is in part intercepted or accounted for by a series of secondary components.
One of the most important of the secondary component is Dysplasia. This term refers to any inconsistent or uneven mixture of the three primary components different regions of the body. Thus it is a disharmony between different areas of the physique. There is more dysplasia associated with the ectomorphic component and also more dysplasia is observed in the female physique; and more dysplasia among psyhotics than normal.
Another secondary component is called gynandromorphy. This represent the extent to which the physique possesses characteristics ordinarily associated with the opposite sex and is referred to as 'g-index'. The individual who is high in this component has a soft body, broad pelvis, wide hips as well as other feminine features.
Sheldon began with the assumption that although there were manifold surface dimensions or variables in terms of which behaviour would be described, underlying these was a small number of basic components that could be expected to account for all the surface complexity and variety.
The second cluster included assertive posture, energetic characteristic, need of exercise, directness of manner, unrestrained voice, quality of seeming older, need of action when troubled. The third cluster of traits included restraint in posture, overly fast reaction, socio-phobia, inhibited social address, resistance to habit, vocal intentness, need of solitude when troubled. A further inter-correlation study resulted in the selection of 20 traits for each of the three clusters.
Factors mediating the physique temperament association:
The individual who is generally credited with having begun work in this area is Hippocrates who suggested not only typology of physique but also a temperament typology and a conception of humors. He suggested a two-fold classification of physiques dividing the subjects into those who were short and thick, and those who are long and thin. The next major studies, of the relation between physique and mental disorders was done by Ernst Kretschmer (1921). He arrived at a conception of three fundamental types of physiques: Aesthnic, refers to a frail, linear physique; athletic refers to a muscular, vigorous physique and pyknic, is characterized by plumpness. Later he came up with a fourth type, the dysplatic, which is strikingly deviant from others, rare, surprising and ugly. This work of Ernst Kretschmer & others provide an indispensable backdrop against which Sheldon's formulations and procedures evolved.
Personal History
William H. Sheldon was born in Warwick, Rhode Island in 1899, where he grew up in a farm setting. The rural atmosphere of his early life and his lose relationship with his father, who was a naturalist and a breeder, had a lasting effect on his values and upon his view of human behaviour. He was educated in public schools and attended Brown University where he received his B.A. in 1919. Subsequently he received an M.A. from the University of Colorado and a PhD in psychology from the University of Chicago in 1926. In 1933 he received his M.D. also from University of Chicago. From 1924 to 1926 he was an instructor in psychology at the University of Chicago and then was an assistant professor for one year at both the University of Chicago and Northwestern University. He was next an assistant professor at the University of Wisconsin from 1927 to 1931. After serving his medical degree he interned at a Children's hospital in Chicago and secured a fellowship that enabled him to spend two ears in psychiatric study abroad. In 1938 he moved to Harvard where he remained for a number of years and where his collaboration with the distinguished experimental psychologist, S.S. Stevens, developed. Following a period of wartime army service, Sheldon accepted in 1947 a position as director of the constitution laboratory, college of physicians and surgeons Columbia University, where he remained until his retirement. In this position he succeeded George Draper, a pioneer in constitutional medicine and like Drape, he studied the relationship between organic disease and physical structure. Until his death on September 16, 1977, he resided in Cambridge not far from Harvard's memorial hall where much of his major research and writing were carried out.The Structure of Personality
Sheldon defines a discrete number of physical and temperamental variables that he considers of primary importance in representing human behaviour. Sheldon attempts to identify and provide suitable measures for the physical components of the human body. He assumes that genetic and other biological determinants play a crucial role in the development of the individual. He believes it is possible to get some representation of these factors through a set of measures based upon the physique. In his view there is a hypothetical biological structure, the morphogenotype, which underlies the external observable, physique. The phenotype and plays an important role in determining physical development and in molding behaviour. The somatotype is an assessment of the morphogenotype, based on the measurements of the phenotype (physique).Dimensions of Physique
Sheldon devised a photographic technique, that involved taking pictures from the front, side and rear of individual posed in a standard position before a standard background. This procedure has come to be called the somatotype performance test. After carefully examining and judging the pictures, Sheldon and his associates came up with three components.Primary component of physique: the three dimensions became the core of the technique for assessing the physical structure of the body. The first component was Endomorphy; the individual who is high in this component is characterized by softness and a spherical appearance. Consistent with the softness and rounded quality is an under development of bone and muscle and a relatively low surface-mass ratio. The fact that the digestive visera are highly developed in this physique and the fundamental elements of these structures develop primarily form the endeavoural embroyonic layer accounts for the use of the terms endomorphy.
The second component is referred to as Mesomorphy. A physique highly developed in this component is hard and rectangular, with a predominance of bone and muscle. The mesomorphic body is tough, resistant to injury and generally equipped for strenuous and exacting physical demands. The dominant portions of this physique have derived primarily from the mesodermal embryonic layer, hence the term mesomorphic.
The third component is Ectomorphy. An individual who is at the upper extreme of this component is linear and fragile, characterized by flatness of the chest and delicacy of the body. He is usually thin and lightly muscled. Relative to his mass the ectomorphic has more surface are than the other types of physique. He has the largest brain and central nervous system in proportion to his size. His physique is made up of tissues that have derived from ectodermal embryonic layer. The ectomorph is more exposed to external stimuli because of his large surface area. This is a physique poorly equipped for competitive and persistent physical action.
Female somatotyping: Sheldon states that the evidence available indicates that the same somatotypes seemed to occur among women as had been observed among men, although probably with different frequencies. Endomorphy and endomorphy combined with ectomorphy are more common among women; while mesomorphy and mormorphy combined with endormorphy are more common among men. Female physiques are much more endomorphic than male physiques.
The secondary components: the primary components serve to set limits upon a classified physique within any single somatotype classification there is still room for tremendous variation. This variation is in part intercepted or accounted for by a series of secondary components.
One of the most important of the secondary component is Dysplasia. This term refers to any inconsistent or uneven mixture of the three primary components different regions of the body. Thus it is a disharmony between different areas of the physique. There is more dysplasia associated with the ectomorphic component and also more dysplasia is observed in the female physique; and more dysplasia among psyhotics than normal.
Another secondary component is called gynandromorphy. This represent the extent to which the physique possesses characteristics ordinarily associated with the opposite sex and is referred to as 'g-index'. The individual who is high in this component has a soft body, broad pelvis, wide hips as well as other feminine features.
Analysis of Behaviour (Personality)
Sheldon began with the assumption that although there were manifold surface dimensions or variables in terms of which behaviour would be described, underlying these was a small number of basic components that could be expected to account for all the surface complexity and variety.
Dimensions of Temperament
Initially the literature of personality, especially that having to do with specifying human traits, was carefully inspected and a list of 650 traits was extracted. This was sharply reduced by combining overlapping dimensions and eliminating those that seemed of no significance. In the end Sheldon was left with 50 traits. A group of 33 men were rated on a 7 point scale for each of the 50 traits. The results revealed three major clusters of traits, the first group included traits of relaxation, love of comfort, pleasure in digestion, dependence on social approval, deep sleep, need of people when troubled.The second cluster included assertive posture, energetic characteristic, need of exercise, directness of manner, unrestrained voice, quality of seeming older, need of action when troubled. The third cluster of traits included restraint in posture, overly fast reaction, socio-phobia, inhibited social address, resistance to habit, vocal intentness, need of solitude when troubled. A further inter-correlation study resulted in the selection of 20 traits for each of the three clusters.
The relationship of Physique to Behaviour
Sheldon has identified components of physique and temperament. Now, he attempts two classes of variables. Sheldon's research has led to a surprisingly strong confirmation that there is a marked continuity between the structural or physical aspects of the individual and his or her functional or behavioural qualities.Factors mediating the physique temperament association:
- The success or reward that accompanies a particular mode of responding is a function not only of the environment in which it occurs but also of the kind of person (type of physique) making the response. The individual with a frail ectomorphic body cannot sucessfully adopt a bluff, aggressive, domincering manner in relation to most people, where as it may be perfectly possible for the oversized mesomorph to do so. Given a particular physique and a normal environment, the individual finds certain kind of responses are relatively often rewarded and certain other kinds of responses are usually punished.
- Another possibility is that the relation between physique and temperament is mediated by commonly accepted stereotypes or the social stimulus value within the culture in regard to the sort of behaviour to be expected of individuals with different kinds of physique. Thus, an individual with a particular physique occupies a social role, which included a set of behavioural specifications and in normal course of events the individual will conform to those specifications.
- Environmental influences tend to produce particular kinds of physique and at the same time produce certain behavioural tendencies. There are certain events that both physique and behaviour are largely determined by environmental influences.
Summary
Sheldon defines a discrete number of physical and temperamental variable representing human behaviour. The primary components of the physique are Endomorphy, Mesomorphy and Ectomorphy. The Endomorphy is characterized by softness and a spherical appearance. Mesomorphy is characterized with predominance of bone and muscle. The Ectomorphy is characterized by flatness of the chest and delicacy of body. The somatotype of an individual is the patterning of the primary components of physique. Sheldon has developed a method of assigning somatotype ratings that is wholly objective.
The secondary components of physique are Dysplasia, which refers to any inconsistent or uneven mixture of the three-primary components in different regions of the body; Gynandromorphy represents the extent to which the physique posses characteristics ordinarily associated with the opposite sex; textural aspect indicates the fineness of a person.
Sheldon also came up with three components of temperament with twenty defining traits for each component. These are Viscerationia, somatotonia, cerebrotonia. Sheldon carried out a study of 200 males over a period of 5 years to find the relations of physique to behaviour and he concluded that: there is a clear correspondence between temperament and physique.
Sheldon's research has led to a strong confirmation of the constitutional psychologists expectation that there is a marked continuity between the structural or physical aspects of the individual and his or her functional or behavioural qualities.
