Meaning of Theory
A theory is a set of connections created by the theorists. "A set of connections" emphasizes the fact that theories are not "given" or predicted, by nature, the data or any other determinant process. The data acquired through investigation may be incorporated in any of countless different theoretical schemes. The theorist in choosing a particular option to represent the events in which he or she is interested, is exercising a free creative choice, The emphasis here is the creative, yet arbitrary manner in which theories are constructed. We can specify how a theory ·should be evaluilted or appraise, but we cannot specify how a theory should be constructed. There is no formula for fruitful theory construction.Need for Theory
A theory is a conventional choice, rather than something that is inevitable or prescribed by known empirical relations. As such, truth and falsity are not attributes to be ascribed to a theory. A theory is only useful or not useful. These qualities are defined primarily in terms of how efficiently the theory can generate predictions or proportions concerning relevant events that turn out to be verified (true). Mere empirical facts do not suffice to explain a theory not just assumption. A theory consists of empirical data, definition and assumptions, which are systematically related to each other.Characteristic of Good Theory
- A theory, in it's ideal form contains a cluster of relevant assumptions systematically related to each other and a set of empirical definitions.
- The assumptions must be relevant in that they bear upon the empirical events with which the theory is concerned. The nature of the assumptions represents the distinctive quality of the theory. If it is a theory of cognition, the assumptions must bear upon cognitive processess.
- A good theory should ferret out useful or predictive assumptions concerning the empirical events within a domain of interest. Depending upon the nature of the theory, these assumptions may be very general or quite specific. For example, a behavioural theorist might choose to assume that all behaviour is motivated, events taking place early in life are the most important determinants of adult behaviour.
- The assumptions may also vary in a continuum from the precision of mathematical notation to the relative inexactness of most of the assumptions we have just mentioned earlier.
- The assumptions and elements within the theory must be explicitly combined and related to one another.
- For the systematic interaction between the assumptions and their embedded concepts, there must be rules, to give the theory logical consistency and permit the process of derivation. Due to the similarity of the rules of grammar, these statements are also referred to as the syntax of the theory. For example, a theorist might choose to assume that an increase in stress would load to lowered/poor motor performance. In addition, it might be assumed that an increase in self esteem would lead to an improvement in motor performance. It is necessary to find out something about the relation between stress and self esteem before any predictions can be made concerning what may take place under circumstances where both the variables are involved.
- By means of the operational definitions, the theory at certain prescribed places come into definite contact With reality or observational data.
- The empirical definitions exist on a continuum ranging from complete and exact specification to a very general and qualitative statement. These definitions should be as precise as present conditions within the relevant field permit.
Function of a Theory
- It leads to observation of relevant empirical relations not yet observed.
- Specific empirical propositions (like statements, hypothesis, predictions) are derived from the theory that is subject to empirical test.
- The acceptance or rejection of the theory is determined by it's utility, which has two components: verifiability and comprehensiveness. Verifiability refers to capacity of the theory to generate predictions that are confirmed when the relevant empirical data are collected. Comprehensibility refers to the scope or concreteness of these derivation.
- The theory should lead to accurate predictions that deal very generally or inclusively with the empirical events the theory to embrace.
- Theory permits systematic generation of the research.
- Theory also facilitates heuristic generation of research. For example, Darwin's theory had a great effect upon investigative paths without the mediation of explicit propositions.
- A theory should permit the incorporation of known empirical findings within a logical consistent and reasonably simple framework. For example, a memory theory must embrace in a consistent manner all the dependable findings dealing with the learning process.
- Theories begin in an inductive phase, i.e., they commence with that which has thus far been observed and reported and are guided and controlled by what is known.
- At the same time, theories point out the new and as yet unobserved relations. The productiveness of the theory is tested before the fact, not after the fact.
- After comprehensiveness and verifiability have been settled simplicity or parsimony is also important in a theory.lt is only when one has a tautology- two theories arriving at the same conclusions from different terms- that simplicity becomes an important question.
- A theory should permit the observer from being dazzled by the full- blown complexity of natural or concrete events. It permits the observer to go about abstractive from the natural complexity in a systematic and efficient manner.
- The theory specifies to the user a limited number of more or less definitive dimensions, variables or parameters that are of crucial importance.
- A useful theory will detail rather explicit instructions as to the kinds of data that should be collected in connection with a particular problem.
Theory of Personality
In relation to the above mentioned characteristics and functions of a theory;personality theory has certain limitations but at the same time it has certain advantages,which can be observed in the following:Limitatious of the Personality Theory
- Most of the theories lack explicitness. It is generally hard to get at the axiomatic base of these theories.
- There is a frequent confusion between that which is given or assumed and that which is stated empirically and open to test.
- The distinction between the personality theory itself and it's implications or derivations is very poorly maintained.
- Most personality theorists have been oriented toward after- the fact explanations rather than toward the generation of new predictions concerning behaviour.
- Although personality theories vary in how carefully they specify empirical definitions, none of these theories achieve a very high standard in absolute terms. Though personality theories do not ordinarily permit as explicit a derivation process,they still serve certain functions for the individual who wields them.
- They represent a cluster of attitudes (assumptions) concerning behaviour that in a broad way limits the kinds of investigations to be considered crucial or important.
- Apart from stimulating certain kinds of research, they also provide specific parameters or dimensions that are considered important in the exploration of the problems. These theories have heuristic value.
- These theories are highly provoactive.
- They have led to large qualities of research though relatively little of this has been the result of a formal derivative process.
Nomothetic and Idiographic Approaches
Gordon Allport emphasized that the researcher may choose to study behaviour interms of general principles, universal variables and a large number of subjects. Thisapproach is called nomothetic (universal) approach. In idiographic (individual) approach,the researchermay focus ont the individual case using methods and variables that areadequate to the uniqueness of each person. In labelling these two approaches to the studyof behaviour, Allport borrowed the terms from the German philosopher WindelbondLater Allport (1962) suggested substituting new tenm, morphogenic for idiographic anddimensional for nomothetic. This can be represented as:- Individual approach v/s Universal approach
- Idiographic approach v/s Nomothetic aprroach
- Morphogenic approach v/s Dimensional approach
The emphasis upon the morphogenic approach is a logical outgrowth of several features of Allport's theoretical position, which can be observed in the foliowing:
- Allport's emphasis upon the uniqueness of each person placed a heavy obligation upon the researcher to select methods of study that will not conceal this individuality.
- Emphasis upon the importance of personal dispositions (individual traits) as the primary determinants of behaviour. If these dispositions are the "real" units of of personality and if they are characteristic of only a single person, then the metode of studying the individual will be the most effective approach.
- Allport called attention to morphogenic approaches devised by other investigators, which include Q methodology (Stephenson), individualized questionnaires (Shapiro, l96l), self anchoring scales (Kilpatrick & Cantril, 1960), the role construct repertory test (Kelly, 1955).
- Allport was also interested in personal documents in research.
